ISSN 0798 1015

Vol. 41 (Number 06) Year 2020. Page 8

Literacy competence and social and emotional competencies in Primary Education. Individual and ethnic-cultural factors

Competencia en comunicación lingüística y competencias socioemocionales en Educación Primaria. Factores personales y étnico-culturales

LLORENT, Vicente J. 1 & GONZÁLEZ-GÓMEZ, Antonio L. 2

Received: 02/10/2019 • Approved: 14/02/2020 • Published: 27/02/2020

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Results

4. Conclusions

Bibliographic references

Annexes

1. Introduction

School must offer a comprehensive education of students to facilitate personal development and social and labour insertion (UNESCO, 2015). However, the demands of society cause new changes in the school that directly affect the school curriculum (Moore, 2014). These changes are responsible of the rising of competences. They are curricular element that responds to necessity of training individuals face efficiently the resolution of problems in very varied contexts, whose limits are increasingly blurred due to globalization and new technologies (Rychen & Salganik, 2003).

Different countries in Europe, such as Spain (Tiana, 2011) or France (CNDP, 2006), have firmly committed to education by competencies. Council of European Union (2018) recommends following competences for the curriculum: literacy competence, multilingual competence, mathematical competence and competence in science, technology and engineering, digital competence, personal, social and learning to learn competence, citizenship competence, entrepreneurship competence, cultural awareness and expression competence.

1.1. Literacy competence in Primary Education

One of the top priority objectives in Spain for the stage of Primary Education is the development of the literacy competence (Ley Orgánica 8/2013). This competence enables students to interact linguistically in an appropriate way in different communicative contexts (Council of Europe, 2018) and with other people (Spanoudis, Natsopoulos, & Panayiotou, 2007). Every person needs to develop four dimensions of literacy competence, speaking (producing oral interaction), listening (getting information about other people speaking), reading (getting information about writing texts) and writing (producing writing text to communicate) (European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2006). Language is a transcendental element that articulates any human activity, especially orally (speaking and listening) since communication supposes a high full time commitment in daily life (Padilla et al., 2008). On the other hand, the consequence of a positive development in reading is a positive impact on the mathematical, linguistic and scientific fields as well (Gil Flores, 2011). At the same time, difficulties in listening and writing can generate insufficient relationships to access the understanding of phenomena, and therefore, hinders interaction with the academic contents of other subjects (Hernández-Torres & Hernández-Abenza, 2014).

Such is the importance of literacy competence that its dimensions are subject to evaluation by various tests. The Program for the International Assessment of Students (PISA) evaluates the reading ability of 15-year-old students in the secondary education stage (MECD, 2016). They also stand out -in the international context- the tests in Primary Education PIRLS, and in Spain, tests are established by article 20.3 of the Law of Education 8/2013 for 3rd and 6th grades of Primary Education. From their results and comparisons, ideas must be extracted to introduce school policies and practices that improve education (OECD, 2016). However, external evaluations of the competency, as a component of curriculum, are insufficient to help students progress (Savolainen, 2009; Labate, 2010). Also, it´s necessary to update assessment and validation methods and tools (Council of the European Union, 2018).

1.2. Social and emotional competencies in Primary Education

Schools play a fundamental role in the education of children and young people, in addition to a cognitive development, a social and emotional maturity that facilitates their social-labor inclusion, and this must be reflected in the curriculum (Amadio, Opertti & Tedesco, 2015). Social and emotional competencies allow children to develop processes to effectively acquire and apply the knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, and thus make responsible decisions while establishing and maintaining positive relationships with others (CASEL, 2012). Social and emotional competencies are understood from other constructs (Payton et al., 2000), and the recent studies (Zych et al., 2018) have considered that social and emotional competences are concretely formed by four dimensions: self-consciousness, ability to recognize emotions; self-motivation and self-management, skills to regulate emotions and manage them to achieve goals; social conscience and prosocial behaviour, ability to empathize with other people in different contexts and situations; and responsible decision making, ability to decide according to ethical values ​​and taking into account the possible consequences.

Social and emotional development in schools is a promising initiative for improving the success of students in school and in life (Zins & Elias, 2006). Some researches, (Blum & Libbey, 2004), claim the existence of a high percentage of students lacking an adequate development of social and emotional skills. This can affect negatively to academic performance and health. On the one hand, research on social and emotional learning programs has shown that individuals with a high degree of development of social and emotional competencies achieve a higher academic performance (Zins et al., 2004; Bierman et al., 2008; Denham & Brown, 2010; Low et al., 2015). At the same time, success in mathematics and reading ability can be improved thanks to the promotion of these skills (Blair & Raza, 2007). Other studies have shown that social and emotional skills contribute to improve school climate (Del Rey et al., 2016; Zych, Ortega-Ruiz, & Del Rey, 2015) and to prevent specific problematic behaviours, such as interpersonal violence or bullying (Nasaescu et al., 2018).

There are some studies which focused on this topic in adulthood (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2012) or the Secondary Education stage (Salguero et al., 2010). In fact, different researches have studied the role of social and emotional competences as a protective factor against different risks, for example, in relation to the roles of bullying and cyberbullying (Nasaescu et al., 2018; Zych et al., 2018). However, these are not explicitly described in the Primary Education stage.

The study of empathy has been included to complement the knowledge of social and emotional competences, because empathy plays a fundamental role in personal and social development (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006; Ware et al., 2007) and the ability to recognize feelings of others (Allemand, Steiger, & Fend, 2015). This variable has two dimensions, affective empathy and cognitive empathy (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004), and its study will help to know the development of social skills and, therefore, social and emotional competencies.

Besides of all this evidence, those competencies have not been studied in Primary Education. On the one hand, the internal and external assessments do not allow establishing a global knowledge of literacy competence. On the other hand, other studies (Bolívar, 2015) show the social and emotional competencies are not included in Primary Education curriculum, although evidence shows the relevance of these competencies (Yang et al., 2019). Therefore, the present study aims to describe the development of literacy competence and social and emotional competences in Primary Education students -including empathy- to complement these competences.

2.1. Participants

This research has involved a total of 516 students who attend 4th, 5th and 6th grade of Primary Education during the academic year 2017/2018, selected by incidental sampling. The sample consisted of 516 primary school children, of which 49.5% were girls (n = 256) and 50.4% were boys (n = 260), with an age range from 8 to 12 years (M = 9.97, DT = 0.883), belonging to six primary schools at the provinces of Córdoba, Jaén and Málaga (Spain). The subjects were distributed in the 4th, 5th and 6th grades of Primary: 226 of 4th (43.8%, M = 9.17, DT = .53), 137 of 5th (26.6%, M = 10.07, DT = .31), and 153 of 6th (29.7%, M = 11.05, DT = .34).

Taking into account the ethnic-cultural diversity, there were 24 children who identify themselves as belonging to the gypsy group (13 gypsies and 11 with at least one of the gypsy parents), who represented 4.7% of the sample. Another ethnic-cultural minority present was represented by 63 immigrants, which accounted for 12.2% of the sample, including those who do not have Spanish nationality or, even if they have it, at least one of their parents has a foreign nationality. The majority group, students of Spanish nationality who are not part of the two previous groups, was composed of 429 (83.1%) children. Consequently, the ethnic-cultural component was very similar to the average in the whole region of Andalusia (Llorent, Ortega-Ruiz & Zych, 2016).

2.2. Instruments

The instrument used in this research consisted of four parts: socio data, literacy competence, social and emotional competences and empathy.

The socio-educational data was focused on the characteristics of the students: age, course, sex, nationality, nationality of the parents, and belonging or not to the gypsy ethnic group.

The language proficiency test, inspired in the guidelines of the Spanish Ministry of Education for the 3rd (MECD, 2017a) and 6th Primary (MECD, 2017b) tests, has three factors: listening, reading and writing. Taking into account the scale proposed by the Council of Europe (2018), two competency assessment scales were created in literacy competence (see annex I); one to measure listening and reading, and another to measure the writing. Both scales were divided into indicators that were grouped by levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2). The competence assessment scales in literacy competence have been reviewed by a group of experts consisting of ten university professors in the field of Educational Sciences and twelve practicing teachers belonging to compulsory education.

The Social and Emotional Competencies Questionnaire (SEC-Q) (Zych et al., 2018) is composed of 16 items that make up four factors of the Socio-Emotional Competencies: self-awareness, self-motivation and self-management, social awareness and prosocial behaviour, and responsible decision making. The items are presented with Likert type responses from 1 to 5, where 1 is "Totally Disagree" and 5 "Totally Agree". The validity of the questionnaire in this study can be considered good when obtaining a Cronbach´s alpha and Omega as α = .80 and Ω = .86.

The Basic Empathy Scale (BES) (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006), validated in Spanish by Villadangos et al. (2016), consists of 20 items that measure two factors of empathy: cognitive empathy and affective empathy. The items are presented on a Likert scale, where 1 is "Strongly disagree" and 5 "Strongly agree". The validity of the questionnaire in this study can be considered good when obtaining an α = .95 and Ω = .83.

2.3. Design and procedure

This ex post facto study was carried out through a survey of an incidental sample of Primary Education students in the first trimester of the 2017/2018 academic year. Researchers selected six schools by contacting with different teachers interested in the scientific study. In each school the necessary authorizations were obtained. Questionnaires were individually completed by the students during lessons hours and in the presence of the teachers responsible for each group. Survey was anonymous and students could reject to do it. Test was not conducted by 31 students. Schools were informed that the data obtained would be analysed only for scientific purposes and under the confidential and ethical-professional commitment of the researchers, following the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.4. Data analysis

Psychometric properties of the questionnaires for the current sample were checked. The reliability coefficient, analyzed through the Cronbach's alpha, was calculated with the SPSS 23.0, and the Omega statistic with the software Factor 10.5.2.

After verifying that the questionnaires were reliable and adequate for the current sample, the descriptive statistics were calculated with the SPSS 23.0 software. The means in the social and emotional competences were measured between variables with two groups, with the Student test, and for more than two groups, with ANOVA. Groups were compared with the Cohen´s effect, with 95% CI, to show the strength in the relationships of the variables analyzed. Pearson coefficients were also calculated to analyze the correlations between the different variables.

Levene test was performed to identify the homogeneity of the variances. The different factors were compared in relation to gender, belonging to an ethnic-cultural group, school and course, with the ANOVA test. The post hoc comparisons were made with the Bonferroni and Games-Hawell tests, according to the heterogeneity of the variance.

3.1. Literacy competence in 4th, 5th and 6th grade of Primary Education by gender, age and belonging to ethnic-cultural groups

The first analysis carried out tried to know the level of development of each dimension of the literacy competence. Results show that 50.6% of the sample presents A2 level in writing, 34.5% of sample presents B1 level, and only 6.1% of the sample reaches B2 level. In relation to listening, a large majority (71.9%) has B1 level, 10.9% of the sample has A2 level and 16.5% has B2 level. Reading is developed at B1 level by 68.5% of the sample, while 9.1% of the sample presented A2 level and 21.3% reached B2 level.

The total score in literacy competence is higher for girls compared to boys (M = 2.93, SD = .51 vs M = 2.79, SD = .54, d = .27, CI 95% = .09- .44). Girls scored significantly higher than boys in listening (M = 3.11, SD = .52 vs. M = 3.00, SD = .52, d = .21, IC 95% = .04-.39), reading (M = 3.20, SD = .53 vs. M = 3.05, SD = .54, d = .28, IC 95% = .11-.45) and writing (M = 2.48, SD = .69 vs. M = 2.30, SD = .54, d = .25, IC 95% = .08-.43).

Age is significantly and positively related to the literacy competence (r = .48 p <.001), as well as to its different factors: listening (r = .38 p <.05), reading (r = .39 p <.001) and writing (r = .48 p <.001).

The degree of development of literacy competence is significantly higher for children of the ethnic majority, compared to those belonging to the ethnic minority (M = 2.92, SD .51 = vs M = 2.55, SD = .48, d = .73, 95% CI = .49-.97) (see Table 1). Also, the students belonging to the majority obtained better scores in the listening (M = 3.11, SD .50 = vs M = 2.79, SD = .56, d = .63, IC 95% = .39-.86), reading (M = 3.18, SD .53 = vs M = 2.85, SD = .52, d = .62, IC 95% = .39-.86) and writing (M = 2.47, SD .72 = vs M = 2.01, SD = .57, d = .66, 95% CI = .42-.90).

Table 1
Literacy competence and
ethnic-cultural groups.

*p<.05             **p<.01            ***p<.001

3.2. Social and emotional competencies in 4th, 5th and 6th grade of Primary Education by gender, age and belonging to ethnic-cultural groups

The total score in social and emotional competences is higher for girls compared to boys (M = 66.39, SD = 8.09 vs. M = 64.08, SD = 8.93, d = .27, IC 95% = .09-.45). Girls scored significantly higher than boys in social awareness and prosocial behaviour (M = 25.21, SD = 3.37 vs. M = 24.28, SD = 3.70, d = .26, IC 95% = .08-.44) and in responsible decision making (M = 11.41, SD = 2.52 vs. M = 10.70, SD = 2.82, d = .27, IC 95% = .09-.44).

There is no significant relationship between age and social and emotional competencies (r = -. 05 p> .05), as well as with its different factors: Self-awareness (r = .01 p> .05), self-motivation and self-management (r = .01 p> .05), social awareness and prosocial behaviour (r = -. 07 p> .05) and responsible decision making (r = -. 05 p> .05).

No significant differences were observed in social and emotional competences in relation to belonging to an ethnic cultural minority (M = 64.37, SD = 8.61 vs. M = 64.43, SD = 8.60, d = .11, IC 95% = -.13 -.35).

Bonferroni's post hoc comparisons show that 5th graders presented higher scores in social and emotional competences than 6th-graders (d = .34, 95% CI = .10-.58). The 4th graders showed lower scores than the 5th graders (d = .27, 95% CI =. 05-48) in self-awareness. However, for this dimension, the 5th graders have significantly higher scores than the 6th graders (d = .32, 95% CI =. 08-.55). The 4th graders have significantly higher scores than the 6th graders in social awareness and prosocial behaviour (d = .270, 95% CI =. 06-.48) and in responsible decision making (d = .26, IC 95 % = .05-.46).

3.3. Empathy in 4th, 5th and 6th grade of Primary Education by gender, age and belonging to ethnic-cultural groups

Girls scored higher than boys in the development of empathy (M = 33.10, SD = 4.23 vs. M = 32.54, SD = 4.63, d = .13, 95% CI = -.06-.32) (see Table 2). Girls also scored higher than boys in cognitive empathy (M = 32.28, SD = 4.44 vs. M = 32.15, SD = 4.72, d = .03, 95% CI = -.15, .21) and in the affective empathy (M = 33.93, SD = 6.12 vs. M = 33.05, SD = 5.93, d = .15, IC 95% = -.04-.33).

Table 2
Empathy and gender.

Students belonging to the ethnic majority have higher scores on the total score of empathy than students of the ethnic minority (M = 33.01, SD = 4.52 vs M = 31.75, SD = 3.79, t = 2.05 p <.05, d = .29, 95% CI = .01-.56) (see Table 3). Also students of the ethnic-cultural majority have higher scores in cognitive empathy (M = 32.33, SD = 4.63 vs. M = 31.54, SD = 4.24, d = .17, IC 95% = -.09-.43) and in affective empathy (M = 32.62, SD = 6.10 vs. M = 32.80, SD = 5.65, d = .03, 95% CI = -.28-.22).

Table 3
Empathy and ethnic-cultural groups.

*p<.05

The Bonferroni post hoc comparisons showed that 4th grade students present a significantly higher score than 6th grade students in cognitive empathy (d = .31, 95% CI = .10-.53).

The European countries and many others around the world are implementing an educational curriculum by competencies (UNESCO, 2017). From this interest in education by competences through an adequate individual and social development in schools, assessment is necessary for adequate development of competences in students. This research aimed to know the level of competences in Primary Education. The literacy competence and social and emotional competences have been specifically analysed, taking into account social and personal characteristics.

Literacy competence, social and emotional competencies and empathy presents a mayor development in girls than boys. Firstly, literacy competency results are related with conclusions of the 2015 PISA report (MECD, 2016) for writing in 15-year-old students, in Spain. Secondly, girls obtained a higher score in the social and emotional competencies than the boys too, coinciding with a previous study carried out in secondary school (Zych et al., 2018). These differences by sex are also repeated on empathy, and within its two dimensions (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006). So, the results show a clear sex difference, which could keep on Secondary Education.

However, results are different according age. Literacy competence develops progressively throughout the Primary Education and the students of higher grades and who are older, with some exception, tend to show a higher level of development in the different analysed dimensions (listening, reading and writing). The scores of the 6th grade students are lower than the other. In fact, these differences are significant in three of the four factors, in addition to the total score.

Cognitive empathy is also significantly lower in 6th grade with respect to 4th grade of Primary Education. Due to the descriptive nature of this study, we cannot establish cause-effect relationships. It could be inferred that the entry into the state of pre-adolescence initiates a consolidation of the construction of the self-initiated in previous states (Llorent & Álamo, 2018). This fact can cause behaviours contrary to coexistence and that could explain this decrease in the social and emotional competence score. And to this, it could be added that, according to the three tutors of the 6th grade participating schools, during the course there was a very disruptive climate in these groups of 6th grade. In this way, it seems more necessary to include social and emotional competencies in curricular planning of all grades to promote the benefits of the social and emotional learning.

Literacy competence is clearly seen related to the social context (Wu, Valcke & Keer, 2019). In this research, the majority group is identified with a more developed literacy competence, this fact is also shown by other studies conducted in Spain (González, Huguet, & Chireac 2013; Navarro & Huguet 2010; Navarro, Huguet, & Sansó 2014) and at an English language context (Cummins, 2001). In fact, belonging to an ethnic-cultural group is related to the level of development of literacy competence (Kirby, Dowman, & Griffiths, 2007).  These results could be explained because of a social context whose mother tongue matches the language of the selected competition, as is not the case for most of the ethnic-cultural minority. The lower development in this competition could explain other social difficulties, such as the involvement in cases of bullying (Llorent et al., 2016), which opens new lines of research. Social and emotional competences are not significantly altered by belonging to an ethnic-cultural group. The study by Alonso, Berrocal, & Jiménez (2018) also states that there is no significant correlation between the development of emotional intelligence and contextual factors in the 4th grade of Primary Education.

However, as it has already happened in the literacy competence, empathy in the students belonging to the ethnic majority presents higher scores in the total score of the empathy, and in its two dimensions, than the students of the ethnic minority. Certainly, the empathy is significant within the family characteristics (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2014), which implies the need to do more in-depth studies, where parents are included, to have a more complete vision.

Some problems associated with literacy competence can be connected with a disaster in social behaviours (Durkin et al., 2017.) Recent studies (CASEL, 2012) suggest that social and emotional competencies present a high development if they are included in curricular subject in Primary. However, before promoting any type of didactic intervention, it is necessary to know the current situation of the development of theses competencies in order to programme correct decisions, such as to plan cooperative activities.

The study presented in this article has several limitations. Although the participant sample was broad, it is not a representative sample of the stage of Primary Education. However, two competencies of the curriculum have been analysed, main axes of the development of the current educational systems all over the world. A contribution in the Scientific knowledge about Primary Education competences has been done, detailing personal and ethnic-cultural aspects, providing scientific basis for future political and school decisions.

Finally, the instrument which the literacy competence has been assessed could represent an “Assessment for learning”, which could be used as a tool in schools to know the development of their students (Black et al., 2006). This scale unifies assessment criteria and facilitates its process. In fact, educational administrations could facilitate the implementation of the assessment by competencies from this scale, both on the realization of external and internal tests, carried out by teachers in their respective classrooms. In short, this article could have implications for educational policy, educational inspection and the teaching-learning process in schools.

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Annexes

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1. Associate Professor. Department of Education. University of Córdoba (Spain). vjllorent@uco.es

2. PhD Student. Department of Education. University of Córdoba (Spain). m72gogoa@uco.es