ISSN 0798 1015

Vol. 39 (Number 28) Year 2018 • Page 24

Economic and Sociological Aspects of the Development of Gender Relations in Kazakhstan

Aspectos económicos y sociológicos del desarrollo de las relaciones de género en Kazajstán

Valentina SHELOMENTSEVA 1; Zhanat ALTAIBAYEVA 2; Shynar MUTALLYAPOVA 3; Sergey BESPALYY 4; Aina NARYNBAYEVA 5; Lyazzat KAIDAROVA 6

Received: 08/06/2018 • Approved: 16/06/2018

Content

1. Introduction

2. Methods

3. Results and Discussion

4. Conclusion

Bibliographic references

1. Introduction

Kazakhstan’s society is in solidarity with the progressive world community in assessing gender equality as an integral part of the general concept of equality and considers it as the potential for strengthening the economic growth ability of the country, declining poverty and ensuring good governance.

Therefore, the achievement of gender equality is the midpoint of the country's socio-economic development and its full and independent goal. The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan declares equal rights and freedoms for women and men from birth, which are absolute and inalienable (Constitution 1995). "No one may be subjected to discrimination of any kind on sex, race, nationality ... or any other circumstances" (Gender Equality Strategy 2005).

In general, the gender policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan is oriented to worldwide trends and developing according to them. A distinctive feature of the development of gender relations is that the initiator of projects is, first of all, the State, which takes preventive and proactive measures in this area.

The beginning of the institutional development of the gender policy of sovereign Kazakhstan can be determined in 1995, when the Council on Women, Family and Population under the President was established. In 1998, the National Commission for Family and Women Affairs under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan was established. It has a vertical structure. The Commission also operates at local levels under aims of regions and districts. The main task of the National Commission is to implement a comprehensive state policy on family support and gender equality. The National Commission initiates and participates in the development of draft laws, legal acts, strategies, concepts and government programs on family and gender equality issues.

In 2005, the Concept of Gender Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan was adopted; the National Gender Equality Strategy for 2006–2016 was approved by presidential decree. The goal of the strategy was to realize equal rights, equal opportunities for men and women, in all areas of society in accordance with the Millennium Development Goals (Gender Equality Strategy 2005).

Currently, the implementation of the Gender Equality Strategy for 2006-2016 has been completed (Plan 2011). For the period from 2012 to 2016, the Plan for the implementation of the Gender Equality Strategy in the Republic of Kazakhstan was developed. The implementation of the activities of the Gender Equality Strategy for 2006-2016 was promoted by the Act on State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities for Men and Women and the Domestic Violence Act, which were adopted in 2009. The Concept of Legal Policy of Kazakhstan for the period from 2010 to 2020 provides law coverage for the implementation of the activities of the Gender Equality Strategy. Today, Kazakhstan is a party to more than 60 different international human rights treaties and conventions, including those aimed at ensuring gender equality and protection of women and children as well.

In 2016, Kazakhstan took the 51st place in the ranking out of 144 countries in terms of gender equality, the gender gap index was 0.718 units, in 2006 the same indicator was 0.693 (32nd out of 115 countries) (World Economic Forum 2016).

2. Methods

Modern gender policy is increasingly turning to the use of multilevel and complex research methods. If we refer to the English-language literature, we can see that the use of mixed methodology, i.e. a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, is particularly recommended in the case of multistage researches, as well as in change-oriented investigations. Mixed methodology often leads the researcher to new questions, expanding the scope and limits of the research (Sharelin Nagy Hesse-Biber 2010). Reinharz (1992) states that gender equality researchers combine many methods so as “to cast their net as widely as possible in the search for understanding critical issues in women's lives.” (Reinharz 1992: 201)

The purpose, objectives and methods of this research are presented in Figure 1. The methodology is based on analysis and synthesis techniques in identifying gender equality developmental trends.

Figure 1
The purpose, objectives and methods of gender
equality research in the Republic of Kazakhstan

Given these factors, the objectives set in the research were very difficult: to determine the main achievements, issues and shortages of gender equality, to identify certain aspects of collective consciousness in the perception of gender policy, to develop recommendations for further steps in the implementation of gender equality.

The complexity of the goal and the scope of the objectives required a comprehensive approach, a mixed strategy and a combination of methods, which, however, were entirely in the spirit of gender-oriented research. The analysis of the main results of the Gender Equity Strategy in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2006-2016 was carried out according to the data provided by official statistics. The purpose of the survey was to determine the beliefs and attitudes of the population of Kazakhstan on gender, gender policy, gender equality, women’s status and issues. In 2016, the national civic Businesswomen’s Association of Kazakhstan conducted a survey countrywide, while the authors of the present article conducted a sociological survey in one of the regions of Northeast Kazakhstan.

Gender policy does not provide an immediate result. Its benefits will become evident after years, due to the accumulation of positive practices, the creation of circumstances in observance of rights and the implementation of the opportunities of all gender groups.

3. Results and Discussion

Public interests in solving gender issues are realized not only through governmental agencies and through political parties. Non-governmental organizations have a prominent role in promoting gender equality issues. The non-profit sector (known as a non-governmental sector in the Republic of Kazakhstan), represented in the form of private funds, non-profit institutions, unions (associations) of legal entities, other organizations and initiative groups, is aimed at solving socially useful objectives and implements a wide range of services for society.

By 2016, more than 27,000 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) had been registered in the country; about 1,500 of them were women organizations. Public organizations, whose activities are devoted to the issues of gender relations in Kazakhstan, are active subjects of gender policy, as well as State bodies. The NGO sector has certain opportunities for the systematic development of civil society and democratic institutions.

In order to get a full picture of the substantive side of NGO activities, it is advisable to analyze the areas in which NGOs operate, the types of jobs and services to which they are oriented and the object of their activities (service recipient, service consumer).

Table 1
Activities area of non-governmental organizations in Kazakhstan

Note: compiled by the authors according to the data of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Kazakhstan’s non-governmental sector is highly varied in terms of the spheres and types of NGO activities; 10.4% of organizations concentrate their efforts in the field of gender (Review, 2009). To stimulate their activities, the Concept of Civil Society Development and the Law on state social contractual awards were adopted. NGOs carry out state orders for socially significant projects, which are implemented at the expense of budgetary funds. From year to year, funding for socially significant projects on gender and family-demographic policy implemented by NGOs is increasing. Therefore, if in 2005 1.5 million tenge was allocated for these purposes, in 2016 more than 60.0 million tenge was allocated.

There are conflicting opinions on the real contribution of women's public organizations to the development of the country. Some members of society believe that "the women's political movement is still a marginal phenomenon in the political life of society; the influence of women on state policy remains minimal" (Taran, 2010). The Secretary of State, the chairman of the National Commission for Women Affairs, Family and Demographic Policy under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, G. Abdykalikova, on the contrary, emphasizes the innovative, proactive role of women's NGOs. She believes that they contribute to the development of new laws, the gender expertise of laws, and the abolishment of discriminatory articles of laws, as well as promote gender equality and gender training among civil servants, policemen, youth, rural and poor women and other categories of the population (Abdykalikova, 2015).

For 10 years, the socio-political activity of Kazakhstani women has increased, as evidenced by their representation in the Mazhilis, which according to the results of the last elections was 27.1%, which is higher than the world average of 22.1% (Mazhilis, 2016).

The supporting system for the development of gender relations is designed to realize the equal rights and opportunities of the individual. The system for ensuring gender development in Kazakhstan is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2
Supporting system for the development of gender relations in Kazakhstan

This system, which protects against gender-based discrimination, is one of the components of social stability in the State. The inefficient functioning of this system can provoke an increase in social tension.

The achievement of gender balance means equal legal protection, proportional representation in government bodies, equal distribution of loads in the family, equal opportunities in all spheres. Therefore, the Gender Equality Strategy is aimed at achieving 30% representation of women at the decision-making level. In 2016, the number of women in the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan was 21 or 14 percent of the total number of deputies. In particular, there were 5 women-deputies in the Senate (the upper house of parliament), and 8 women-deputies in the Mazhilis (the lower house of parliament). Women are represented by 2 ministers, 5 vice-ministers, and 1 chairman of the agency. Women account for 54% of administrative civil servants; their share in leading positions is 4.8%. Among political civil servants, the proportion of women is 8.8% (Women and men of Kazakhstan 2016).

In 2016 Kazakhstan dropped 4 positions in comparison with a year earlier and took 51 place in the ranking of gender equality. Such data were presented in the report of the World Economic Forum for 2016. The study presented at the forum included 144 countries. The leader in the rating of gender development was Iceland. The second and third place went to Finland and Norway. The countries of the EAEU, namely Russia, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan, ranked 75th, 102nd and 81st, respectively, and the Republic of Belarus were on the 30th place.

Explaining the problems of slow improvement of the status of women in Kazakhstan, the government refers to the fact that "there is a misunderstanding of the essence and importance of addressing gender issues in the mass consciousness" (Kosherbayeva 1999).

As a result of the sociological survey, we came to the conclusion that the small number of women represented in politics and governance is regarded as gender inequality by the population of Kazakhstan. The survey results are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2
Where is gender inequality most clearly manifested?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

According to the majority of the respondents, more than 30% indicated that gender inequality manifests itself in politics. 28.6% of the respondents believe that gender inequality exists in the labor sphere.

 The political and labor spheres demand high self-sufficiency, and women in Kazakhstan traditionally prefer to take care of their families.

The results of comparing the representation of men and women in power, who equally prefer the leaders of both genders, are presented in Table 3.

Table 3
What is the degree of representation of men and women in power (in percentage terms)?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

The majority of the respondents, 57.7%, note that men dominate by representation. This result is consonant to the answers of 29.1% of the respondents who noted that men in power are fairly well represented. 39.6% of the respondents noted that women in power are fairly well represented, although 3.4% indicated their dominance in power. In this respect, 38.1% of the respondents who indicated the weak representation of women in power were consistent.

The evaluation of women's influence in Kazakhstan on politics, public life, economy and social sphere by the respondents is shown in Table 4.

Table 4
How well are women represented in the
following areas (in percentage terms)?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

 Women are fairly well represented in politics, according to 38.9% of the respondents. 35.2% of the respondents with a "thinly represented" answer and 4.6% with a "not represented" answer do not have an optimistic view of the representation of women in politics.

More than half of the respondents believe that women are fairly well represented in public life and almost half of the respondents – in the economy.

In the social sphere, including education, culture and health care, women traditionally hold leading positions. This is evidenced by the results of the survey. 34.5% of the respondents indicated the representation of women in these areas as dominating, and 39.4% of the respondents believed that women are fairly well represented.

The tendency of the small number of women in elective bodies is stable. This is due not only to the existence of certain financial and legal barriers, but also to entrenched stereotypes. Gender stereotypes are stable generally accepted notions in society on proper "female" and "male" behavior, their purpose, social roles and activities. The presence of such historically formed representations is reflected in the unequal distribution of rights of men and women in society, forming gender inequality (Myers 1998).

It is natural that the preferences of the population on the basis of gender in the voting for a candidate in the election are given to men (Table 5).

Table 5
For what gender do you prefer to vote?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

The majority of the respondents, 44.8%, would prefer to vote for a man in the election. However, those who prefer to choose a woman candidate prevail, since there are 14.6% of those who prefer to vote for women candidates and 39.4% for whom gender does not matter and quality is important.

On the one hand, the choice of the leader on the basis of gender is balanced by those who prefer men leaders, and on the other hand – by those who prefer women leaders and who show indifference to the leader’s gender. This is supported by the data presented in Table 6.

Table 6
What gender do you prefer?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

The majority of the respondents, 45.7%, prefer to have men leaders. The reasons for this gender-based preference for the leader by the respondents are presented in Table 7.

Table 7
Why are leadership preferences gender-based?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

Among the qualities that should be possessed by the leader, thinking bigger (22.1%) and the ability to stand up for the organization (20.4%) are more often indicated. An interesting fact is that leadership skills are highlighted only by 5% of the respondents, while "no less professional" – by 1.2%. This seems to imply that the respondents do not see the dependence of these qualities on gender.

Traditional culture had a great impact on the established gender stereotypes. It considers strictly ranked, ordered and unified relations within society. The social role of men suggests being the leader in the family and society. Women are given the role of housewives raising children.

Gender stereotypes strongly influence the formation of gender attitudes among the younger generation – the subjective willingness to behave in a certain way in a particular role in accordance with their gender. Gender settings manifest themselves in the character of the person performing a male or female role (Kletsina 2004).

The role of gender equality in modern Kazakhstan’s society is formed taking into account the influence of the past traditions, such as the polyethnic gender traditions of pre-Soviet societies, the peculiarities of the Soviet gender traditions, the influence of the west and the east, the growth of religiosity, social polarization, the increased influence of international organizations with the indispensable support of gender equality ideas, etc.

In these contradictory conditions, a new Eurasian model of "gender equality" of Kazakhstan's society is being formed. The formation of the model of gender relations is based on the views of individuals with regard to the relationships that develop in the family. The achievement of gender equality should be based on equality in society and in the family. Representations of the population about the proper gender relations are shown in Table 8.

Table 8
What should gender relations in the family be?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

It is interesting that the views on gender relations in the family are shared almost equally. 28.7% noted that partners should equally participate in family life, 28.9% of the respondents said, “it should be felt that father is the head of the family”, and 27.7% preferred to note that man is the head, but with the proviso that woman is the supporter. The views of the population on gender relations in the family are different. This state of affairs was influenced by the international and age composition of the population, the level of education, the established family traditions and the industrial orientation of the regional economy.

The connection between gender relations in the family and the share of each family member in family income is presented in Table 9.

Table 9
What is your share in family income?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

The family income of 33.0% of the respondents consists of the incomes of working family members in equal shares. 26.0% of the respondents noted that more than half of the family budget consists of their income, and the income of 19.3% of the respondents in the family budget is less than half.

The idea of what should be the distribution of family responsibilities among the respondents is different, as presented in Table 10.

Table 10
What should the distribution of family responsibilities be?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

The majority of the respondents, 39.2%, believe that the husband should earn money, and the wife is engaged in household chores and children, not working outside the family. 22.8% of the respondents expressed the opinion that the wife should work and perform mostly household chores, and 21.0% believe that household chores should be divided equally, in case if the wife works. In their responses to this question, the respondents reflected their desires for the distribution of family responsibilities. In general, the population understands that household chores are labor that deserves respect and fair distribution.

The vision of how to share responsibilities in the family and how things really go is not the same. The distribution of family responsibilities among the surveyed population is presented in Table 11.

Table 11
How are family responsibilities distributed in your family?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

In most families, 37.3%, the wife works and does household chores. In other cases, the responsibilities are more fairly shared. Moreover, 25% noted that the husband works, and the wife is engaged in household chores, 21,1% answered that household chores are divided equally, because the wife works, 11.2% of the respondents answered that despite the fact that the woman does not work, household chores are carried out equally.

In general, the population understands that domestic duties are a full-fledged labor that deserves respect and equitable distribution. But in most cases, the wife works and mostly does household chores, including raising children.

Much attention in the Gender Equality Strategy was paid to the achievement of gender equality in the economy, the further development of entrepreneurship among women, and the enhancement of their competitiveness in the labor market.

For the economic advancement of women in 2003, the National Commission signed a Memorandum of Cooperation with the Republican Small-Sized Enterprise Fund. The Fund has financed a number of projects of women entrepreneurs. ".. It should be noted that women rush more consciously and calculatingly in the "whirlpool of business" than men, and when the goal is achieved they adapt well to the circumstances ..." (Frezorger 2006).

We have studied the respondents' opinion on career difficulties because of gender bias.  The results are shown in Table 12.

Table 12
Do you agree with the statement that it is much harder for a woman to make a career?

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

54.6% of the respondents noted that it is more difficult for women to make a career, and 39.8% did not agree with this opinion. The reasons for preventing women from making a career in Kazakhstan are reflected in Table 13.

Table 13
Reasons to prevent women from making a career in Kazakhstan

Note: compiled by the authors based on the results of a sociological survey.

The main reason for preventing women from making a career in Kazakhstan is their parental duties (maternity leave, childcare, household, etc.). This was indicated by 44.0% of the respondents. Professional mistrust of male leaders to the weaker sex was noted by 21.1%. Men's chauvinism and adherence to traditions were indicated by identical groups of 14.2% of the respondents.

The opinion on the existence of gender discrimination in the labor sphere is characterized by the answers to the question "Is there labor discrimination based on gender in Kazakhstan?": 22.8% of the respondents answered "Yes", 40.2% - "No", 18.0 % - "Indirectly", 19.0% were not sure.

The main forms of labor discrimination are salary (16.1%), working conditions (24.9%), hiring (35.9%), other (2.4%), 0.7% were not sure.

In general, the survey results confirm that women exert sufficient influence on public life and solve social problems. Women along with men make a feasible contribution to the development of the country's economy. The population of the region, for the most part, considers that women’s career development depends, however, on their personal qualities and priorities (family or career). Perhaps, it is necessary to pay more attention to the issues of women in harmonizing their labor career with the development of family relations.

The international and domestic practice of the development of social relations contains a number of activities aimed at increasing the information and training of society on gender equality issues. The gender component is included in the state compulsory standard of secondary 12-year education in Kazakhstan. A comprehensive educational program "Gender" was developed for the system of school and preschool education. In Kazakhstan, the gender expertise of school textbooks is conducted.

Gender studies in Kazakhstan are carried out by many scientific organizations, for example, by the Scientific Research Institute for Social and Gender Research of the Kazakh State Women's University for Teacher Training. The aim of the Institute is to assist in the preparation of competent and gender-sensitive pedagogical staff ready for the introduction of gender approaches in the country's educational system (Scientific Research Institute for Social and Gender Studies website).

The purpose of the Scientific Research Institute is realized by:

- development of educational programs, including gender indicators,

- implementation of gender studies,

- introduction of continuous gender education.

Different aspects of gender development in Kazakhstan are devoted to the work of such researchers as Kodar (2010), Shedenova (2002), Sarsembayeva (2016), Solovyova (2008), Berkimbayeva et al. (2011), and Khasanova (2012).

During the last three years, as noted by the surveyed citizens, the situation in Kazakhstan in matters of real gender equality has changed for the better. The State's participation in ensuring real gender equality is positively evaluated. Labor law sufficiently protects women's right for equal work and salary.

According to the estimates of the population, the conditions for the protection of women's rights to work, motherhood and health in Kazakhstan have been basically created. However, it should be noted that more attention must be paid to the quality of specialized health care. The following causes of health problems of Kazakhstani women are indicated: non-compliance with healthy lifestyles, lack of qualitative specialized health care in hospitals and inpatient facilities, lack of high-quality affordable medical assistance in women's clinics and polyclinics and regular medical examinations.

The surveyed citizens showed interest in the positive development of gender relations. They noted the need to consistently implement the State's gender policy. The State's actions to ensure the real equality of men and women, in their opinion, should be aimed at increasing the activity of gender organizations and improving the legislative framework.

The population associates changes in gender relations of Kazakhstan society with the increased influence of women in the family, at work, in social and political processes. The results of the implementation of the Gender Equality Strategy in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2006-2016 as a whole have predetermined positive changes for the advancement of women in the society, the development of their leadership qualities and promotion to the level of decision-making. At the same time, a number of causes and problems of gender relations have been revealed in the research process, and a number of proposals have been developed to determine the prospects for the further development of Kazakhstan’s state gender and family-demographic policy in the framework of a new program document on gender and family-demographic policy in the Republic of Kazakhstan until 2030 (Table 14).

Table 14
Analysis of problems and proposals for their overcoming in Kazakhstan’s gender policy

Note: compiled by the authors.

4. Conclusion

On the basis of the conducted sociological research, we came to the conclusion that gender socialization is currently changing in Kazakhstan. In the 21st century, the existence of the traditional model of gender relations is virtually impossible. In connection with the cardinal changes in the political, economic and social spheres of life, the classic version of "the role of men" and "the role of women" is failing. The change is manifested in the sharp weakening of the polarization of male and female roles. The economic situation does not allow a woman to stay at home, raise children and be a model of femininity, because a man is sometimes physically unable to fully provide for the family. In the female consciousness, new features of women's self-determination have emerged: a woman must be independent, enterprising, professionally successful, and energetic, i.e., have qualities that were previously considered masculine. The survey reveals that the situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan is slowly changing in the direction of gender equality. The economic independence of a woman, as it was before, is questioned, but it is considered possible for her to choose the right partner, lifestyle, clothing, etc.

Gender is strongly influenced by both traditional cultural norms and social information. The theory of normative and information pressure partly explains how we learn these norms and what makes us adhere to them (Bendas 2006).

The transition to new standards of life reflects on the results of gender socialization of the younger generation and on the family. Gender socialization is the process of assimilation by the individual of the cultural system of gender of the society in which the individual lives, a kind of social construction of the differences between the two genders. The loss of prestige of the traditional model of gender relations and the traditional form of marriage in particular occurs because of the transformation of the traditional roles of men and women.

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1. Innovative University of Eurasia, Pavlodar, Kazakhstan.

2. Innovative University of Eurasia, Pavlodar, Kazakhstan.

3. S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical University, Astana, Kazakhstan

4. Innovative University of Eurasia, Pavlodar, Kazakhstan

5. Innovative University of Eurasia, Pavlodar, Kazakhstan

6. Innovative University of Eurasia, Pavlodar, Kazakhstan