ISSN 0798 1015

Vol. 39 (Number 19) Year 2018 • Page 18

General budget of the state with gender approach in Ecuador

El presupuesto general del Estado con enfoque de género

Bella del Rocío GARABIZA Castro 1; Juan Francisco SÁNCHEZ Guerrero 2

Received: 15/01/2018 • Approved: 10/02/2018

Content

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Results

4. Conclusions

References

1. Introduction

The Christian Bible (2005), in Ephesians says: the man is the head of the woman, as Christ is Head of the Church (...). Let the wife submit herself to her husband in everything, as the Church submits herself to Christ (pág. 334 ) . Sirácida: the male chauvinist society rests on wisdom, and the woman is not on the right track because she is a feared being and extremely dangerous, she is evil, talkative, seductive and bossy. She is source of sin (pág. 848). Even, (...) from the thinking of Greek philosophy, the woman has been configured from the failure, and therefore a clear place of subordination to the man-macho; losing their own autonomy and rights, becoming an accessory of the male (Sztajnszrajber, 2015).

Primitive society differs from the previous. Engels (2012) mentioned: (...) the study of primitive history reveals a state of affairs in which men practice polygamy and their women polyandry, therefore, the children of one or the other are considered common (pág. 18). Famale had power in that social form: Women constituted a great force within the clans (gens), just as everywhere. When the case arose, they did not hesitate to dismiss a leader and demean him as a simple warrior (pág. 29) . Likewise, the hierarchy was nonexistent: (...) the communist family and the gens know their obligations to the elderly, the sick and the war disabled; all are equal and free, including women (pág. 47).

At the middle ages, gender inequality was institutionalized in the fields of labor and religion. Male activities were imposed over the activities of women, the beginning of the "hierarchy of work". Pirenne (1939) mentioned: The fabric that until then would have been an occupation reserved for women, it was concentrated in the men's industry (pág. 38). The marriage: (...) woman and man could contract marriage if both belonged to an equal social scale (pág. 44). Little by little, the man continued imposing on the woman, and she was left behind to domestic activities. Religion strengthened the condemnation of women in society, e.g., in clerical music. Galeano (2013) reported that in the year 1234 (13th century), the church marked the limits of women's participation in song, because "(...) they messed up religious music since they were impure by nature, and only boys could do it, be children or castrated men. It was in the twentieth century, when they sang again " (págs. Minutes 6:50 - 7:40)

The industrial revolution for women, boys and girls, turned out to be an era of exploitation, almost inhuman. Various complaints and public reports on the social situation at that time show that the work of children and pregnant women was frequent, as were the working hours of 12 - 14 hours (Maestre, 1973, pág. 36).

The struggle for the emancipation of women to recover lost spaces and win others, currently has much intention to be institutionalized. Fruit of it are the feminist organizations, one more radical than the other. Their protests were against the inequality of options and gender. Include, they can go from accidental position to the most radical, e.g. the biological change.

Contrary to the above, there is the something called Binary Thinking. It indicates that there are only two sexual identified, male and female. Both are interdependent and are their own, by nature of the human being; but it hides the woman in the history of subjection. The binary raises an ontological equality between men and women that in history has been embodied in a "history of violence". To think about feminine is therefore already a political practice. (Sztajnszrajber, 2015)

The aim was to highlight the importance of the gender economy and its implementation in the General Budget of Ecuador State. The methodology is purely description and analysis of sources, both qualitative and quantitative. The time restriction was 10 years (2007 - 2016) but some specific data are from 2006 or 2012 according to the original Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics database of Ecuador, which condenses information from other updated original sources. On the other hand, the corresponding part of the literature, most of them were authors whose publications are in scientific journals of Spain, which were translated into the English language; and from the journal Economics & Sociology. The novelty is to make known the relationship that exists between the gender, economy, state budget, and its effect on health, education and employment in Ecuador. One possible solution, to reduce the gender gap between men and women in the country, is to update the teaching methodology in the economy and public finances, introducing the gender perspective. In addition, we need because our Latin American reality, than the state aid through compliance with and monitoring its policies and legal regulations against gender violence.

This document was composed of concepts and definitions about gender and its relationship in economic science and the budget of Ecuador State, with social indexes. The first part, we made exclusive reference to the gender, followed of the gender in the economy, and later his results; and finally, the part quantitative-descriptive section strictly of the country with the help of social indexes.

2. Methodology

2.1. The gender

Gender has some meanings in Spanish, i) The amount of common characters, ii) Type of people or things, iii) Sexual group of belonging in function of the sociocultural. It even has its textual content within biology and grammar (RAE, Real Academia Española;, 2017). It even has its textual content within biology and grammar. However, this is only an approximation to its literal meaning.

It is standard to equal reference sex with gender, but it is a mistake. Sex refers to the biological condition of man and woman. In contrast, gender refers to associations, stereotypes and social patterns (Nelson, 1995 - Vol. 9 - No. 2). e. i., gender is constructed. The biological sex is not, because it is already designed.

In the Social Sciences, Estrada (2007), gender is a category with three purposes: i) Deinstitutionalize the division between men and women, ii) Study the social phenomena that arise from that division, and iii) Highlight them actors as socially constructed cultural products. However, over time the category was abused and associated with the image of a weak woman. These approaches had strong repercussions on social consciousness, because it did not attack the problem at its roots. Rather, it impeded the equality of rights and values. And to break with this, it is necessary to denaturalize the specialization and extract from the essentialist approach, since it reaffirms the "sexual symbolic order". Another aspect is limitation of the conciliation between State, market and family (págs. 4 - 6).

In the 60's, radical feminism strongly promoted equality, anti-hierarchical, anti-capitalist, anti-racist impulse and against strong masculine hegemony. It was formed as a movement against patriarchy, who considered the basic system of oppression on which stared the rest of the oppressions (Sztajnszrajber, 2015). At 70's and 80's, it was progressively consolidated with the help of feminist approach politics (Carrasco, 2009, págs. 4 - 6).

2.2. Gender in the economy

Economy studies the most convenient allocation of scarce resources of a society to obtain an ordered set of objectives. Therefore, e.i., Economy is "the science of choice" (Mochón, 1995, pág. 4). So, human beings make economic choices, assuming that it is rational. Etymologically, Economy comes from the Greek term OIKONOMIKE, whose composition consists of Oikos = house with everything one possesses; Nomos = administration (Alvarez & Garavito, 1996, pág. 2).

For Carrasco (2009), the classical doctrine was interested in production, distribution and exchange to generate wealth; conceived only by the production and commercialization of tangible goods, and not by services. So, domestic work did not have relevance for the economic analysis, being an activity for rendering services. On the other hand, altruism and ethics promote in the family, but this is opposite to the individualism that it proposes the capitalist system. Additionally, at home there was no specialization or exchange, therefore domestic work was not taken into account because it was inefficient. (págs. 60 - 65).

The economic behavior, between men and women, is different for the Economy study due to the different roles that were assigned socially to each one. Domestic production was not taken into account, the opposite happened with the production of goods and capital (Castaño, 1999, pág. 23).

Mayordomo (2000), the notion of family subsystem was only applied to women, because they were considered cost of reproduction. The family is a function of sexual activity, on the assumption that everyone has a sexual role prescribed by Nature. Thought that became an axiom for future research. Therefore, activities within the family were left behind in the background due to the natural condition of women. Much more, if they were in poor condition, since they were taking care of their own, and this limited their possibilities of obtaining a remunerated employment. As their productive work was not considered, differentiating categories began to be created, such as: i) Productive family work and non-productive family work, or ii) Family work and non-family work. (págs. 8 - 12)

In industrial times, Galcerán (2006), women were not only wage workers, they were also political militants. However, they did not cease to be an undervalued work force, despite the fact that they carried out important activities. They had to divide between working at home and working in factories or workshops. Thus, little by little women were inserted into the labor market, and exclusive jobs were created for them with low qualification and low salary price. This caused them to complain about the men, who opposed the competition, preventing the formation of women's unions and asking to be fired. So, they endured the male reproaches of industrial society. They continued as political beings, fighters, and supporters for workers' organizations, in favor of reducing work schedules and increasing salaries. (págs. 13 - 16)

Gender in economy is not just a linguistic. Pérez (2005 - Vol. 10 - No. 24) explains that Gender Economics seeks the inclusion of women, as subject and object of study, and seeks the debate in androcentric discourses; absorbing them, who analyze their mercantile experiences. Because the current economy is only explained through the masculine vision, and it denies them being economic agents and their economic rights. There is a distinction between economic and non-economic where exchange value is paid work, and does not recognize gender economic relations as important. (págs. 45 - 46)

The traditional economy studied and promoted from the academy without taking into account that exist also the Mulier economicus, and not only the Homus economicus. Now, if the history of humanity is revised, when the human being began to populate the world and form social groups, the Economy started in the home; and women have always been house managers.

The gender category was inserted into economics, in response to four aspects. This must be questioned, Nelson (1995 - Vol. 9 - No. 2), with feminine ideology, about: the model, the method, the subject and the pedagogy.

Figure 1
Criticisms of economic methodology

Source (Nelson, 1995 - Vol. 9 - No. 2)

Figure 1 shows four fundamental aspects in the teaching of the Economy. It is a doctrine, which leaves aside the feminine analysis.

For Folbre and Hartman (1988), economic thought related the "rational man" with the "patriarchal dimensions" of society, and women as "non-economic" because they are very sentimental. Feelings do not allow scientific objectivity, and this leads to biased and wrong decisions. But from psychology, it was said: Individualism has a close relationship with egoism, and such behavior is considered immature and frivolous. Different from women's own altruism (págs. 96 - 98).

Economics is not the only scientific field of criticism for gender inequality. There are other fields, e. g., the figure of "gender violence" is legally contemplated; or "gender democracy" in Sociology; or "gender participation" in the Policy; or "gender education" in Education.

Gender education, Luque (2015), seeks to restructure the curriculum of educational levels, and provide opportunities for women to be part of scientific research and knowledge. The female presence in universities is a great challenge in developing countries (págs. 129 - 130).

2.3. The result of gender in the economy

It can be said that the Economy of gender started with feminism. This position is not new. It is leveraged in political economy for criticizing "economic androcentrism." But their criticisms did not have much echo in economic science, and they became remote. Since the publication of The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith in 1776 until the beginning of the 70’s of the 20th century, the fight against this submissive woman, subjugated and confined to the productive invisibility, has recently gained strength.

Feminism is: Ideology that defends that woman should have the same rights as man (RAE, Real Academia Española;, 2017). Note that it says "ideology". It can be interpreted as seeking to change the chip of thinking and taking possession gynocentric. The differences between men and women, in wages, production and use of time, were demonstrating the dimension of gender and inequality in power relations. (Benería, 2003, pág. 25)

Figure 2 summarizes the two approaches on what feminist economics is focused on (gender economics).

Figure 2
Approaches to the gender economy

Source (Pérez Orozco, 2005 - Vol. 10 - No. 24, págs. 46 - 49)

Jubeto (2008) explains the effect of feminism as ideological movement. It begins by analyzing the gender category as conditioner of expectations and roles for men and women in society. Therefore, it is a rational set that seeks to understand, analyze and modify the social situation of both sexes, evidencing hierarchical societies with values, stereotypes and traditions with a structural discrimination tonic; even the social devaluation of women's activities. That explains why it has not been taken into account at the time of state planning. Among their contributions, there is a tendency to overcome the false discriminatory theories in socio-economic and political; e. g., highlight the concept of work as activities with impact on personal and social well-being; and the reflections on human development, it is necessary to elaborate a theoretical body with: i) Guarantee of human rights for women, ii) Access and control of assets and economic resources, iii) Decision making about their body, their relationships and their activities (págs. 22 - 24).

Fraser (2012) recommends the revision and reformulation of the concept of gender in the present. Focusing on two problems: i) Distribution has roots in the economic structure of society (division and stratification of work); and, ii) The recognition goes more for social status (cult patterns and values). Both generate sexism. For that, an ambitious restructuring of the economy and the order of contemporary social status is required. And this is solved with redistribution and recognition policies (págs. 271 - 274).

However, (Zwiech, 2009), women still face various types of discrimination such as: i) Employment discrimination, ii) Professional discrimination, iii) Position discrimination, iv) Discrimination in the access to training, and v) Pay discrimination. Whose roots can be explained by the personality adopted by the women themselves of girls transmitted from mothers; greater presence of the woman in the care of infants in relation to the absence of the father, which explains the professional roles; the devalued concept of femininity associated factor determining their status. Women’s “handicap” has been caused mainly by isolation from public sphere (production sphere in particular), economic dependence on men, housework and childcare (págs. 96 - 99).

In every society, (Kiaušienė, Štreimikienė, & Grundey, 2011), the women’s and men’s behavior is perceived and stereotyped differently, and that is determined under the certain cultural level. It is considered that there exists a tendency to teach and learn the corresponding behavior related to a gender role. Nevertheless, curriculum depends on the certain society. In the society there women are less dependent economically; there is less stereotypical differentiation of gender roles. A common stereotype of a man is to be businessman, and stereotype concerning woman’s career. It can be considered that women and men possess different accessibility to economic resources and different employment and self-realization possibilities. Gender differences are not usually described in terms of cultures (págs. 85 - 88).

One aspect that differentiates both sexes is the risk (Belás, Ključnikov, Vojtovič, & Sobeková-Májková, 2015) where men and women have different ways of dealing with it. Men are more aggressive when they identify an opportunity for growth and women seek more stability. Although women are more innovative, this is an advantage to undertake. Job satisfaction is not a factor of entrepreneurship for women, but for men (págs. 34 - 36).

Even in matters of negotiations, (Petkeviciute & Streimikiene, 2017), it is demonstrated that women have more advantages than men, when they are in a negotiating environment. Beauty and "flirting" can help you close important negotiations. In addition, they can perform more tasks than men at the same time. Gender differences have an impact on the process of the negotiation. Theoretical analysis has demonstrated that men are usually striving for personal victories while women are seeking cooperation and are trying to reach a mutually beneficial agreement (págs. 281 - 286).

3. Results

3.1. Ecuadorian General Budget with gender approach.

Feminist ideology reverberated in Latin America. In Ecuador, it was applied through its General State Budget (GSB). The gender approach is new in the field of Public Finance. It responds to the struggle of women for access to social benefits.

The GSB highlights the existing gap between the contents of the policies and the resources allocated for their implementation. That is why it is necessary for public funds to be used in a more equitable manner from the perspective of gender. GSB are commitments of governments with regard to gender, and relates the policies of the ministries with their respective budgets. (Bellamy, 2002, pág. 4)

Correa (2016) said "Ecuador has made great progress in the application of policies that seek to reduce inequality between men and women. It was mentioned in the last report of the World Economic Forum (WEF), which places the country in second place at the regional (Latin American) level in terms of gender equality.

In the constitutional framework, (2008), Art. 11 of the first chapter on rights, the exercise of the same will govern, according to numeral 2: All people are equal and enjoy the same rights, duties and opportunities. (…) The law shall punish all forms of discrimination. Art. 70: The State will formulate and implement policies to achieve equality between women and men, through the specialized mechanism in accordance with the law, and will incorporate the gender approach into plans and programs, and provide technical assistance for its mandatory application in the public sector. Art. 292, State Budget is the instrument for the determination and management of revenues and expenditures of the public sector (...). Art. 294, the Executive Function will elaborate each year the annual budgetary pro forma and the quadrennial programming. And right there, the National Assembly "will control that it conforms to the Constitution, the Law and the National Development Plan." (Asamblea Constituyente, 2008)

Table 1 shows the evolution of the Annual General Budget of the Ecuadorian State, in its two aspects, initial and accrued. In it, the quantitative leap is noted from 2007 to 2009 and 2013 too. As mandated by the Constitution, fiscal policy as an instrument for the budget is clearly noted in terms of accrual levels in each year. A second aspect that can be noted, the budgeted calculation that is made at the beginning is very common that is much smaller compared to what was earned at the end of the year. When it comes to the state budget, it is a different logic to the private budget.

Table 1
General Budget of Ecuador in millions of dollars

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

Table 2 shows how the population of men and women has grown, from the National Population Census carried out in 2010 still 2017. What can be concluded is the greater presence of women than men.

Table 2
Population of men and women in Ecuador

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)  

The index or relation of femininity reflects the composition by sex of the population. This composition is the result of the demographic dynamics of a population. After birth, the relationship between the number of women and men (expressed either as an index of femininity or its inverse, the masculinity index) varies due to different patterns of mortality and migration of the sexes (SICES, 2017). This index reached 101.8% in 2010 (Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2010).

The distribution by sex as head of household in 2010 reached 2.7 and 1.0 million, for men and women, respectively (Censo de Población y Vivienda, 2010). The identification of the head of household is important to establish kinship in relation to the rest of the household members. It can be by own self-assignation recognized by the other members of the household, or by an economic criterion based on the provision of resources or possession of assets. This allows knowing the structure of households and characterizing them according to social indicators, as well as for the design of focused public policies (SICES, 2017).

Table 3 shows poverty and inequality measured in various ways. The years vary according to the availability of data presented by institutions. It can be noticed that there were significant reductions. Even inequality, measured by the GINI coefficient, was reduced, but it is still a challenge for the authorities. However, the poverty gap between men and women, measured by consumption is greater in relation to the structural.

Table 3
Poverty by sex in Ecuador

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

The effect of the budget with a gender approach is evident in some social indexes. Areas like health, education and employment will be mentioned in their respective order. Because the Ecuadorian economic system has a social and solidary approach and the human being is a subject and an end (Article 289), established in the constitutional text.

3.2. Health with a gender approach

Table 4 shows in summary the data corresponding to public investment in the health sector. The allocation of resources in terms of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) reached almost 3 %, in terms of budget exceeded 8 %, in relation to other social sectors reached almost 30 %, and investment per person grew 302 % {[(173 - 43) / 43] 100} during the period 2007 – 2016.

Table 4
Public expenditure for health 2007 - 2016

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

Table 5 shows the evolution of the indices before the allocation of budgeted and accrued resources in the health area. There were reductions and increases e. g. maternal death, or access to health measured by the average waiting time. Likewise, the gender gap is very variable according to the index, e.g. average transfer time is very low, but the average wait time is very high, if a simple subtraction is made in each index. On the other hand, mortality and violence, men are more likely to have something happen to them than women.

Table 5
Health area categories in Ecuador

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

Health has been a State policy, which the Central Government focused in a concentrated manner. A nation with poor health is a town without major development options. The impulse and the allocation of resources do not come from the market that would not be efficient. It is important that the state subsidy be focused on the poorest sectors of the population, but without abandoning women, since from them, life emerges, arises and reproduces. A woman with weaknesses in her health or system failure, who tries to reproduce, her children will be born weak or with deficiencies.

3.3 Education with a gender approach

Table 6 shows the accrued budget exceeded 4500 million dollars from the year 2013 onwards, in 2016 it fell below this level. In relation to GDP, the year 2013 reached 5%, in the other years it decreased. The weight on the budget was stable between 12 and 14 percentage points. In relation to the other social sectors, education had a strong attention of resources. However, it also decreased in the last two years. And in terms of investment per person, it went from 300 (2013) to 260 (2016) dollars.

Table 6
Public expenditure for education 2007 - 2016

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

Table 7 shows the effect of public investment in education. Both men and women have benefited. In male illiteracy it was reduced by 2 % and that of women by 2.4 %. The reduction in functional literacy had the same effect but in different magnitudes; and digital, although it is from 2012, 10 % in both sexes was reduced approximately. Almost the same magnitude, but in the opposite direction, happened with the index of adolescents who finish high school. However, women have outperformed men, with respect to the index of complete higher education.

Table 7
Education area categories in Ecuador

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

Education has been the same as health, a priority sector for human development and national sustainability in the long term. Investment in education seeks social inclusion. Women and men, in the stage of children and adolescents, were paramount in this type of educational investment. And the nationwide literacy campaign for both sexes in adulthood. But, the explanation for reductions is due to the fiscal adjustment in the investment in works, to the recessive effects of the world economy, which impacted in Latin America.

3.4. Employment with a gender approach

Table 8 shows that public spending to generate employment, which has not been so strong in relation to the sectors, health and education. The year with the largest amount of public resources earmarked for the generation of employment was 2013 with 115 million, henceforth it was decreasing. During the entire analysis period, its weight in GDP did not exceed 1 %. And it was three consecutive years of investing in job training of $ 7 per person and then having reduced it to 3.

Table 8
Public expenditure for employed 2007 - 2016

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

Table 9 shows important employment rates. The working-age population for both sexes increased. The public sector has absorbed more people to work, but with greater preference for women. In domestic work they still predominate, but it was reduced by one percent. The unemployment rate is lower in men; and they receive lower incomes on average, despite the reduction in 2016. And it is they who work the most average hours a week, due to overtime. Internal and external domestic work, the female presence is greater, except for the gender gap in this category. In addition, care for minors, 40 % of women is higher compared to 18 % of men who also exercise this activity.

Table 9
Employment area categories in Ecuador

Source: Integrated System of Knowledge and Social Statistics of Ecuador (2017)

4. Conclusions

First, man and woman had the same right in times the primitive community, very different from the biblical and Greek era. There was not devaluation in the roles of social responsibility, between both sexes. Nowadays, the simplification of the meaning of gender should be avoided, and rather a deeper and more meaningful concept should be given. In addition, it is necessary to recognize that there was a whole historical structure, and women played an important role. But with the evolution of societies, it was left out of the scientific priority. The constant struggles for female emancipation resumed positions, and new considerations were postulated that were taking shape in women's organizations. However, women have always been associated with the home and their chores. Thus, she was assigned the label housewife or lady of the house, e.g recommend see the movie Lips of Monaliza. There is shown, set in the 50's in the United States, how from a prestigious educational institute, girls were educated with high standards in various topics of general culture, in order to get married and be good wives and housewives, at the expense of their future and happiness.

In economics, the male sex was seen as a factor of production, and was defended with the help of economic-scientific analysis, strengthening the inequality between men and women. Maybe not with bad intention, but he did achieve job discrimination. On the one hand, the woman was recognized as a biological breeder and was in charge of taking care of the children. This ensured the future labor force for the capitalist production system in the future. On the other hand, man was the only one that generated production. e.i., the woman was a cost of production so that man can produce. However, thanks to the organization and discontent of their situation in society, women began to be social actress’s worldwide globalization played an important role to be heard.

Thus, feminist economics seeks to rescue the lost space of women in the economy, politics and society. Therefore, the WOMAN, in its varied roles as wife, lover, friend, mother, grandmother, worker, etc., is a very important piece for HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. But, despite the important achievements, there are still flaws in the system. Old androcentric concepts and structures are still maintained; and even, anti-genocentric.

The gender economy is a critique of the androcentric vision of the economy. Because economy is made from reproduction, care and teaching at home. Even so, in spite of the advances in the insertion of women in social and legal rights and obligations, they are in constant evolution and development. And the budget with a gender approach, from Public Finance, is novel in our country. It is a political-philosophical vision with economic-financial impact, which seeks to distribute resources towards social sectors of basic impact for the subsistence of all Ecuadorians, but with greater emphasis on women. For this, state policies are needed and not limited to government policies. In addition, we cannot refuse the good acceptance of women at the time of undertaking. And private finances are a means of allocating resources, although not free, but as a tool for economic independence.

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1. Master in Finance and Corporate Projects (Ecuador). Professor at the Faculty of Economic Sciences. University of Guayaquil – Ecuador. E-mail: bella.garabizac@ec.edu.ec ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3424-8226

2. Master in Finance and Corporate Projects (Ecuador). Professor at the Faculty of Natural Sciences. University of Guayaquil – Ecuador. E-mail: jfsg1178@hotmail.com ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5439-7221