ISSN-L: 0798-1015 • eISSN: 2739-0071 (En línea)
https://www.revistaespacios.com Pag. 83
Vol. 45 (06) 2024 • Nov-Dic • Art. 7
Recibido/Received: 05/10/2024 • Aprobado/Approved: 10/11/2024 • Publicado/Published: 30/11/2024
DOI: 10.48082/espacios-a24v45n06p07
Challenging stereotypes in Mexico: Impact on university
students' entrepreneurial intentions
Desafiando los Estereotipos en México: Impacto en las Intenciones Emprendedoras de
Estudiantes Universitarios
AGUILAR, Pedro D.
1
PEREZ-QUINTANA, Anna
2
CAMPOS, Alejandro3
Abstract
This study examines how gender stereotypes influence the entrepreneurial intentions of university
students in Mexico. Through a survey of 399 students at the University of Guadalajara, the research
reveals that traits traditionally viewed as masculine, such as leadership and risk-taking, are positively
associated with entrepreneurial intentions, while feminine traits show a negative correlation. The
findings highlight the need for policies that promote gender equity, challenging prevailing stereotypes
to foster a more inclusive and diverse entrepreneurial environment.
Key words: higher education; gender stereotypes; entrepreneurial intentions
Resumen
Este estudio examina cómo los estereotipos de género influyen en las intenciones emprendedoras de
estudiantes universitarios en México. A través de una encuesta a 399 estudiantes de la Universidad de
Guadalajara, la investigación revela que los rasgos tradicionalmente considerados masculinos, como el
liderazgo y la toma de riesgos, se asocian positivamente con las intenciones emprendedoras, mientras
que los rasgos femeninos muestran una correlación negativa. Los hallazgos resaltan la necesidad de
políticas que promuevan la equidad de género, desafiando los estereotipos existentes para fomentar
un entorno emprendedor más inclusivo y diverso.
Palabras clave: educación superior; estereotipos de genero; intención emprendedora
1. Introduction
1.1. Gender Stereotypes
Entrepreneurship is widely recognized as a key driver of economic growth and innovation. However, gender
differences in entrepreneurial intentions remain a concern in both academic research and educational
1
Phd Professor. Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas, Universidad de Guadalajara. México. Daniel.cruz@udg.mx
2
PhD Professor. Facultat d'Empresa i Comunicació. UVic-UCC. España. anna.perez@uvic.cat
3 Phd Professor. Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas, Universidad de Guadalajara. México. a.campos@cucea.udg.mx
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Pag. 84
environments. Gender stereotypes have long shaped perceptions of entrepreneurship, influencing decisions and
behaviors of men and women (Hentschel et al., 2019; Endendijk et al., 2013). These stereotypes, embedded in
societal beliefs, assign specific traits and roles to individuals based on their gender, which often results in shaping
students' entrepreneurial aspirations (Ellemers, 2018).
According to social role theory, gender stereotypes both emerge from and reinforce traditional roles, often
associating men with leadership and risk-taking while perceiving women as more nurturing (Eagly, 1987;
Kollmayer et al., 2016). This dynamic is particularly relevant in educational settings, where future entrepreneurs
are shaped, and where these stereotypes can significantly influence career decisions and self-assessment of
entrepreneurial capabilities (Charlesworth & Banaji, 2022; Liñán et al., 2022). Despite changing roles over time,
these stereotypes remain stable and continue to impact attitudes toward entrepreneurship.
Gender orientation, reflecting how individuals internalize and act according to these stereotypes, plays a crucial
role in entrepreneurial intentions (Ahl, 2006; Bem, 1974). Research suggests that men are more likely to identify
with characteristics linked to leadership and competitiveness, while women face additional barriers, including
limited access to resources and support networks (Mueller & Conway Dato-On, 2013; Laguía et al., 2019). This
underscores the need for educational institutions to implement gender-sensitive programs to promote a more
equitable view of entrepreneurship.
This study explores how gender stereotypes and gender orientation influence the entrepreneurial intentions of
university students in Mexico. A quantitative approach was used to survey 399 students from the University of
Guadalajara, focusing on their perceptions of gender stereotypes and their relationship with entrepreneurial
aspirations. By highlighting these dynamics, this research aims to provide insights into how educational strategies
can address gender disparities and foster a more inclusive entrepreneurial environment.
1.2. Gender Orientation
Individual socialization promotes internalizing characteristics and behaviors that align with conventional gender
stereotypes (Eagly, 1987; Powell & Eddleston, 2013). In this way, gender stereotypes can significantly influence
people's thinking and actions (Gupta et al., 2008; Zampetakis et al., 2016). This process culminates in forming a
Gender Orientation, which reflects how individuals perceive themselves based on attributes associated with
gender (Bem, 1974).
Gender is a social construct, and gender expectations differ across cultures and can evolve (Kari, n.d.). Gender
orientationis an individual characteristic that influences personal attitudes, social behavior, and professional
choices that align with the prevailing gender stereotypes in society (Liñan et al., 2022). In this context, men are
expected to adopt a masculine way of thinking and behaving, while women are expected to behave femininely
(Mueller & Conway Dato-On, 2013).
According to Livingston and Judge (2008), gender orientation can be used to discern an individual's attitudes
toward gender roles, whether egalitarian or traditional. Those with a traditional orientation typically believe that
men should be the primary breadwinners in the family and prioritize work over family life. At the same time,
women should assume the role of caregivers and prioritize family over work. On the other hand, those with an
egalitarian orientation believe that work and family responsibilities are equally important for both sexes (Zhao
et al., 2017).
Bem (1974) argued that gender orientations establish social norms regarding appropriate behavior for men and
women. However, this conception could limit the freedom of action for those who conform to masculine or
feminine stereotypes. Bem noted that masculinity has been linked to an instrumental orientation focused on
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intentions»
Pag. 85
task completion and work performance. At the same time, femininity has been associated with an expressive
orientation characterized by an affective concern for the well-being of others (Liu et al., 2019). Similarly, Bem
suggests that individuals can also be "androgynous," meaning they may exhibit both masculine and feminine
characteristics and adopt an instrumental or expressive orientation depending on the situation.
The relationship between a person's biological sex and their gender orientation is not always direct or exclusive.
Accordingly, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) considers masculinity and femininity as separate and
autonomous dimensions (Bem, 1974), where individuals with high scores in one dimension tend to display the
stereotypical traits corresponding to that gender. Those who score high in both dimensions exhibit masculine
and feminine traits (androgynous). In contrast, those with low scores in both dimensions do not identify with the
typical traits of either gender (undifferentiated). Thus, only a portion of women identify with a stereotypical
feminine orientation, while there is also the possibility of having a masculine, androgynous, or undifferentiated
gender role. The same applies to men, offering a broad spectrum of gender identities beyond traditional
classifications (Bem, 1974).
According to gender schema theory (Bem, 1981), people's identification with certain genders results from how
they schematically process gender information, following cultural definitions of what is considered masculine
and feminine.
The BSRI was proposed as a tool to classify individuals into different gender categories and assess their gender
orientation, offering a critique of the traditional bipolar view of masculinity and femininity as mutually exclusive.
Bem argued against the idea that there is a direct correlation between a person's biological sex and their gender
identity, instead proposing that individuals can possess varied combinations of masculine and feminine traits,
resulting in the four gender categories: masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated (Perez-Quintana
et al., 2017).
1.3. Gender Orientation and Entrepreneurial Intentions
In recent years, various studies have demonstrated the interrelationship between entrepreneurial behavior and
the identification of gender differences (Vamvaka et al., 2020; Shirokova et al., 2016). The importance of
examining entrepreneurship and its relationship with factors such as personality traits or situational factors,
including gender differences between men and women, has gained prominence (Zisser et al., 2019). The effects
of gender roles and cultural identity on the business growth intentions of men and women (Zampetakis et al.,
2016) and gender orientation in entrepreneurial intentions (Passah & Panda, 2022; Adamus et al., 2021) have
also been studied.
The relationship between gender orientation, specifically masculine and feminine characteristics, and
entrepreneurship can be observed through identifying opportunities, given the cognitive styles of both genders
(Li et al., 2020). However, Liñan et al., (2024) argue that entrepreneurship has been more closely associated with
masculine stereotypes due to characteristics like leadership, competitiveness, risk-taking, ambition, and self-
confidence (Laguía et al., 2019), which negatively influence women's interest in starting a business (Drydakis et
al., 2018; Camelo-Ordaz et al., 2016). Additionally, it has been observed that women face more significant
challenges in accessing the resources and support networks necessary for successful entrepreneurship. This
challenge is reflected in lower rates of financing and mentoring opportunities compared to their male
counterparts, which also limits their chances of success in the entrepreneurial sphere (Laguía et al., 2019).
Adom and Anambane (2020) studied the role of culture and gender stereotypes in female entrepreneurship in
Ghana and found that culture, through gender stereotypes, acts as a "push" motivator, driving women into
entrepreneurship primarily out of necessity rather than opportunity. Furthermore, gender stereotypes confine
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intentions»
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women to low-value-added sectors and discourage them from venturing into unfamiliar, potentially more
lucrative sectors. The psychological effects of these stereotypes can also demotivate female entrepreneurs,
resulting in lower performance and reduced business growth.
These perspectives highlight the importance of considering gender stereotypes and structural inequalities in
entrepreneurship research. Challenge these stereotypes and promote policies addressing women's barriers to
entrepreneurship.
Li et al., (2020) affirm that social norms drive attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Arshad et al., (2021) observed
that entrepreneurship among women is more closely associated with motivation by community expectations
and aspirations, while male entrepreneurship is deemed more appropriate, as men are viewed as autonomous,
independent, and oriented toward work outside the home (Eagly et al., 2008).
Moreover, Gupta et al., (2019) found that gender role stereotypes significantly influence the perception of
different forms of entrepreneurship. Using social role theory, they found that commercial and high-growth
entrepreneurs are commonly perceived as possessing more masculine characteristics and high agency, while
low-growth entrepreneurs tend to be viewed with more feminine characteristics and high commonality.
Interestingly, social entrepreneurs are perceived as a combination of both gender stereotypes, though they are
attributed to higher agency than commonality. These findings suggest that perceptions of entrepreneurship are
deeply rooted in gender stereotypes, which can influence the entrepreneurial intentions of individuals of
different genders.
Martiarena (2022) expands on this discussion by showing how masculine stereotypes of entrepreneurs affect
female entrepreneurs' growth expectations. Women who identify with feminine traits and attribute masculine
characteristics to entrepreneurs expect their businesses to grow at a slower pace. Stereotype threat theory
suggests that members of a negatively stereotyped social group may perceive a threat of being judged by those
stereotypes, which reduces their self-efficacy and growth expectations. Additionally, the influence of stereotypes
is particularly relevant in industries where the representation of female entrepreneurs is low, increasing gender
salience and triggering stereotype threats.
Finally, BarNir (2021) shows that the experience of gender stereotypes is not only negatively associated with
women's entrepreneurial aspirations but also interferes with the positive influence of self-efficacy and previous
exposure to entrepreneurship on these aspirations. Furthermore, gender stereotypes affect the types of
ventures women prefer to start, steering them away from growth-oriented entrepreneurship and towards
communal entrepreneurship.
Since entrepreneurial intention refers to the decision a person makes regarding whether to become an
entrepreneur (Liñan et al., 2011) and based on stereotype threat theory (Steele, 1997), when individuals perceive
a discrepancy between their characteristics and those associated with a stereotyped task, their intentions to
undertake that task are reduced. Thisconcept can be applied to entrepreneurial intention. If, as discussed earlier,
positive traits of entrepreneurs are associated with men and negative traits with women, women's
entrepreneurial intentions will be affected by stereotype threat. This threat is only activated when the person
feels vulnerable and identifies as a group member with negative characteristics. On the other hand, androgynous
individuals are those who score high in both masculinity and femininity. The concept of psychological androgyny
suggests that a person can be both compassionate and assertive, both expressive and instrumental, and both
feminine and masculine, depending on the situation (Pérez-Quintana et al., 2017).
Based on the literature review and the theoretical framework presented, the following hypotheses are proposed
to guide the present study: • Hypothesis 1 (H1): Gender stereotypes associated with masculine characteristics
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are positively related to entrepreneurial intention. • Hypothesis 2 (H2): Men have higher entrepreneurial
intentions compared to women due to the influence of gender stereotypes.
2. Methodology
This study adopts a quantitative approach, surveying 399 undergraduate students from the economic-
administrative fields at the University of Guadalajara in Mexico. The data was collected through one-on-one
questionnaires, in which gender stereotypes and their relationship with entrepreneurial intentions were
identified.
For the design of the gender stereotypes questionnaire, the 31 items from the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)
proposed by Bem (1981) were used based on the methodology of Ahl (2006) and applied by Pérez-Quintana et
al., (2017). Pérez-Quintana examined various foundational texts in the literature on business management
focused on sex and gender roles and subsequently proposed the items listed in Table 1 as synonyms and
antonyms to describe entrepreneurs.
Table 1
31 synonyms and antonyms of the entrepreneurial person
Synonymous
Opposites
Self-confident
Kind and attentive
Prone to taking risk
Gullible
Prone to position
Flexible
Individualistic
Loyal
Determined, steady and temperamental
Sensitive to the needs of others
Innovative
No systematic
Creative
Unpredictable
Analytical
Obedient
Assertive
Yielding
Self-sufficient
Submissive
Active, energetic and capable of sustained effort
Humble
Optimistic
Shy and discreet
Vehement in opinions
Leadership capacity
Independent
Make decisions easily
Ambitious
Dominant and aggressive
Competitive
Source: Adapted from Pérez-Quintana et al., (2017)
A Likert scale from 1 to 7 was used, where one represented "not socially desirable" and seven represented
"completely socially desirable." Respondents were asked for their opinions on how desirable it is for society that
women and men possess these 31 items to determine gender stereotypes. Questions included: "In your opinion,
to what extent is it desirable for society that a woman is individualistic?" and "In your opinion, to what extent is
it desirable for society that a man is flexible?" This initial survey aimed to assess the perception of the social
desirability of these items in women and men. Since gender is a social construct and can vary depending on the
time and place, this section aimed to identify which items are considered masculine, feminine, androgynous, or
undifferentiated according to the current conception of gender stereotypes (Abele, 2003).
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For the variable of Entrepreneurial Intention, the scale proposed by Liñan and Chen (2009) was used, which has
been utilized in studies for predictive analysis of the intention to start a business (e.g., Barba-Sánchez, et al.,
2022; Batista-Canino, et al., 2024). The six items are:
1. I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur;
2. My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur;
3. I will make every effort to start and run my own business;
4. I am determined to create a firm in the future;
5. I have very seriously thoughts of starting a firm;
6. I have a firm intention to start a firm some day.
Subsequently, t-tests were conducted for all respondents and separately for men and women using the values
obtained from the survey. The results of both groups and subgroups were aligned similarly to determine whether
an item is masculine, feminine, or androgynous. An item is considered masculine if there are significant
differences in "social desirability" between men and women, and the mean for men is higher than for women.
Similarly, an item is classified as feminine if there are significant differences and the mean for women is higher
than for men. An item is considered androgynous if there are no significant differences in "social desirability"
between men and women. Finally, an item is classified as undifferentiated if there is no unanimous consensus
on gender attributes across the three groups, with a significance level of p < 0.1.
Regarding the variable of Entrepreneurial Intention, the scores of each of the six items were averaged. The
reliability was then determined using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, resulting in a score of .953, which indicates
favorable consistency among the variables.
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics
Regarding the demographic data of the sample, 57% of the total respondents identified as women, and the
average age was around 20 years. Additionally, nearly 80% reported that they do not have or have not
established their own business, and only about half indicated that they are involved in a family business.
To evaluate gender stereotypes in the context of entrepreneurship, we conducted a t-test (p < 0.01) to identify
which gender stereotypes persist. The analysis classified items as masculine, feminine, androgynous (equally
desirable for both genders), or undifferentiated (no consensus on gender attributes). Table 2 provides a summary
of these classifications.
The results obtained showed that thirteen items were associated with the masculine gender, only two with the
feminine, one was considered androgynous, and fifteen were classified as undifferentiated. These findings
indicate a predominant perception that behaviors associated with entrepreneurship are predominantly
masculine, linked to instrumental-agentic traits such as decision-making, leadership ability, and dominance. In
contrast, only a few items were associated with traditionally feminine characteristics, such as being discreet and
submissive.
It is essential to highlight that optimism was the only item not associated with masculine or feminine traits,
suggesting that this quality is perceived as gender neutral. Additionally, it is significant that traits directly related
to entrepreneurship, such as creativity and innovation, were classified as undifferentiated. This result suggests
that, while the importance of these attributes in the entrepreneurial field is recognized, they are not considered
inherently masculine or feminine, which opens the door to a more inclusive perception of entrepreneurship.
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Table 2
Summary of item classification
Masculine items
Femenine items
Androgynous
items
Undifferentiated items
Self-confident
Discreet
Optimistic
Active
Assertive
Submissive
Gullible
Prone to taking risk
No Systematic
Self-sufficient
Creative
Prone to position
Flexible
Ambitious
Individualistic
Independent
Obedient
Leadership capacity
Analytical
Unpredictable
Loyal
Make decisión easily
Vehement in opinions
Determined, steady and
temperamental
Sensitive
Dominant and aggressive
Protagonist
Competitive
Humble
Innovative
Kind and attentive
3.2. Entrepreneurial intention
The variable of entrepreneurial intention was analyzed using two complementary approaches. First, the means
and standard deviations of each of the six items that make up this variable were calculated, allowing us to
observe significant differences between men and women. The results indicate that men tend to have a higher
average entrepreneurial intention than women, which may be influenced by the previously discussed gender
stereotypes that associate entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics. These findings validate Hypothesis
2 (H2), which states that men have higher entrepreneurial intentions. This difference may be influenced by
gender stereotypes that link entrepreneurship with masculine traits such as leadership and competitiveness.
The analysis of means and standard deviations shows that men have higher entrepreneurial intentions than
women (M_men = 5.59, SD = 1.45; M_women = 5.16, SD = 1.46). The difference is statistically significant (t(397)
= 3.45, p < 0.01), which validates H2, confirming that men have higher entrepreneurial intentions. This difference
may be influenced by gender stereotypes that associate entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics.
Second, a dimensional reduction was carried out through a KMO factor analysis with varimax rotation. This
method allowed us to identify the underlying factors and group-related items, providing a clearer view of the
dimensions that compose entrepreneurial intention. Table 3 presents the detailed results of these analyses.
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intentions»
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Table 3
Results of entrepreneurial intention
Variable /Item
Mean for men
(SD)
Mean for
Women (SD)
Mean for all
(SD)
Factor
Loadings
% variance
Entrepreneurial Intention
5.59(1.45)
5.63(1.65)
5.73(1.57)
81.23
I am ready to do anything to
be an entrepreneur.
5.59(1.50)
5.16(1.46)
5.33(1.49)
.751
My professional goal is to
become an entrepreneur.
5.83(1.44)
5.53(1.64)
5.65(1.57)
.889
I will make every effort to
start and run my own
business.
6.03(1.32)
5.86(1.55)
5.92(1.46)
.925
I am determined to create a
firm in the future.
5.94(1.49)
5.82(1.63)
5.86(1.57)
.935
I have very seriously thoughts
of starting a firm.
6.00(1.45)
5.70(1.74)
5.82(1.63)
.940
I have a firm intention to
start a firm someday.
5.96(1.48)
5.70(1.78)
5.81(1.66)
.952
Subsequently, after identifying the items corresponding to the masculine and feminine variables, a factor analysis
using dimensional reduction was performed to create two variables: Masculinity and Femininity. This procedure
aimed to establish a correlation between these two variables and Entrepreneurial Intention. The only
androgynous item was excluded from this analysis as it was insignificant.
Table 4
Results of dimensional reduction
for masculinity and femininity
Variable/Item
Factor Loadings
% Variance
Masculinity
42.85*
Self-confident
.792
Assertive
.540
Prone to taking risk
.665
Prone to position
.701
Ambitious
.607
Independent
.620
Leadership capacity
.602
Make decision easily
.602
Determined, steady and temperamental
.625
Competitive
.689
Femininity
55.63**
Discreet
.746
Submissive
-.746
Note. * Significance <0.00 ** Significance <0.05
The principal components analysis identified three main components. The first component explained a significant
proportion of the total variance, grouping ten items with factor loadings higher than 0.5. These items are related
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to desirable qualities in an entrepreneur, such as being self-confident, willing to take risks, and having leadership
ability.
The remaining three items ("Self-sufficient," "Be unpredictable," and "Be dominant, aggressive") showed high
factor loadings in a third component, suggesting that they represent a distinct dimension not aligned with the
primary set of items. Additionally, an internal consistency analysis revealed strong cohesion among the items in
the first component, while the three items from the third component exhibited different internal consistency.
Conceptually, these three items may capture more specific or extreme characteristics that are not essential to
the model's main structure. Therefore, excluding these three items from the primary analysis was decided to
maintain the model's coherence and parsimony without losing significant information.
As shown in Table 5, the correlation analysis revealed significant relationships between entrepreneurial
intention, Femininity, and Masculinity. The correlation analysis revealed a significant negative correlation (-
0.202, p < 0.01) between entrepreneurial intention and Femininity, suggesting that as Femininity increases,
entrepreneurial intention tends to decrease. This indicates that characteristics associated with Femininity may
act as a limiting factor for entrepreneurial intention.
Table 5
Correlation of femininity and masculinity
with entrepreneurial intention
Intención Emprendedora
Femininity
Masculinity
Entrepreneurial Intention
Pearson Correlation
1
-0.202**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
N
392
388
Feminidad
Pearson Correlation
-0.202**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
N
388
389
Masculinidad
Pearson Correlation
0.386**
-0.532**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
0.000
N
392
389
Note. The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
In contrast, entrepreneurial intention showed a significant positive correlation (0.386, p < 0.01) with Masculinity,
which includes desirable qualities in an entrepreneur, such as being self-confident, willing to take risks, and
having leadership ability. This positive relationship indicates that individuals with high scores in these Masculinity
traits tend to have a higher intention to engage in entrepreneurship. This result supports Hypothesis 1 (H1),
which states that masculine traits, such as decision-making, leadership ability, and dominance, are positively
related to entrepreneurial intention. This finding is consistent with previous studies suggesting that traditionally
masculine characteristics are highly valued in the entrepreneurial context (Gupta et al., 2019; Laguía et al., 2019).
Additionally, Femininity showed a strong negative correlation (-0.532, p < 0.01) with Masculinity. This implies
that characteristics associated with Femininity are at odds with the qualities captured by Masculinity, reinforcing
the idea that these traits may conflict with those typically associated with entrepreneurship.
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4. Discussion
The results of this study reveal the persistent influence of gender stereotypes on the entrepreneurial intentions
of university students in Mexico. The association of thirteen items with Masculinity and only two with Femininity
suggests that behaviors linked to entrepreneurship are predominantly perceived as masculine. Although some
traits, such as creativity and innovation, are considered neutral, gender stereotypes continue to shape
entrepreneurial aspirations.
The negative correlation between entrepreneurial intention and Femininity (-0.202, p < 0.01) and the positive
correlation with Masculinity (0.386, p < 0.01) highlight that traditionally masculine traits are still valued in the
entrepreneurial context. This finding aligns with stereotype threat theory, indicating that negative perceptions
of certain groups can diminish entrepreneurial intentions.
Addressing these stereotypes requires a multifaceted approach. Policymakers and educational institutions must
work together to create programs that challenge gender norms, provide support networks, and promote female
role models in entrepreneurship. Additionally, public policies should focus on fostering an equitable environment
that facilitates work-life balance and offers mentorship opportunities.
Future research should explore how different cultural and social contexts affect gender stereotypes in
entrepreneurship, as well as strategies to mitigate these effects. Understanding the intersections of gender with
other inequalities, such as race and social class, will provide a more comprehensive foundation for designing
inclusive interventions
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